History Extension Project
‘Evaluate the Papacy of Rodrigo Borgia’
Synopsis
My main question is
to evaluate the Papacy of Rodrigo Borgia. I was introduced to Rodrigo through a
video game ‘Assassins Creed II’ and developed knowledge through wide reading
and doing research concerning his life, Papacy and controversial status.
I always considered addressing his true nature. With help from my teacher I came up with the question of evaluating his Papacy. To answer this I had to write about his life, actions, the claims/allegations made against him and how historians portrayed him over time. It also involved determining whether his corrupt, vindictive image was justified or whether he was a decent Pope
More importantly though, I had to determine on what basis to evaluate Rodrigo’s Papacy. How important was context? This includes how we judge him (as a Pope, Renaissance Ruler or man) and to what extent the evaluation can be a moral judgement?
To do this a variety of sources are used. Narrative sources (The Borgia’s by Marion Johnson, The Borgia’s TV series’) helped in describing the life he led as Pope. Two sources that have opposing views and claims concerning his reputation were March of Folly by Barbara Tuchman and The Borgia’s The rise and fall of the most infamous family in history by Michael Mallett, Tuchman sides with the idea Rodrigo was corrupt, while Mallett sides with the idea that he was misrepresented by many.
Christopher’s Hibbert’s The Borgia’s and Their Enemies draws a line in the middle and gives a useful and complete objective account and overview. Certain websites were also used to provide further background information that may have been missed and to provide further evidence/quotes.
All these sources contributed one way or the other to the formation of my essay. The specific areas they address provide a focus and guide on how to evaluate Rodrigo’s Borgia’s Papacy.
I always considered addressing his true nature. With help from my teacher I came up with the question of evaluating his Papacy. To answer this I had to write about his life, actions, the claims/allegations made against him and how historians portrayed him over time. It also involved determining whether his corrupt, vindictive image was justified or whether he was a decent Pope
More importantly though, I had to determine on what basis to evaluate Rodrigo’s Papacy. How important was context? This includes how we judge him (as a Pope, Renaissance Ruler or man) and to what extent the evaluation can be a moral judgement?
To do this a variety of sources are used. Narrative sources (The Borgia’s by Marion Johnson, The Borgia’s TV series’) helped in describing the life he led as Pope. Two sources that have opposing views and claims concerning his reputation were March of Folly by Barbara Tuchman and The Borgia’s The rise and fall of the most infamous family in history by Michael Mallett, Tuchman sides with the idea Rodrigo was corrupt, while Mallett sides with the idea that he was misrepresented by many.
Christopher’s Hibbert’s The Borgia’s and Their Enemies draws a line in the middle and gives a useful and complete objective account and overview. Certain websites were also used to provide further background information that may have been missed and to provide further evidence/quotes.
All these sources contributed one way or the other to the formation of my essay. The specific areas they address provide a focus and guide on how to evaluate Rodrigo’s Borgia’s Papacy.
History Extension Essay
Rodrigo Borgia was both a famous and infamous Italian Renaissance Pope who ruled from 1492 up until his death in 1503. My main purpose is to evaluate the papacy of Rodrigo Borgia. In order to do this it is necessary to analyse the specific sources and from those sources extract content relating to Rodrigo’s life, his rise to the Papacy, actions made during his reign and most significantly, the varying views of his Papacy.
The ideal way to evaluate Rodrigo morally is by addressing the main
claims/accusations made against him, while noting the positives and negative
contributions he made. There also needs to be judgement, both in the context of
his time and up until more modern standards to truly establish answers.
Throughout history Rodrigo has had a
reputation for corruption. It can be argued that this image was generated by
the many claims made against him during his Papacy and reign, claims such as
the way he was elected to the Papacy, incest claims from Giovanni Sforza and
claims of murder.
While
inheriting a very vilified and controversial status Rodrigo also contributed in
unique and subtle ways to society. Marion Johnson
in her book The Borgia’s, which forms a narrative on Alexander’s
life, agrees with his achievements through the course of his Papacy.
But Alexander also did good
work knowingly for the papacy and for Rome
These contributions include Patronage of the arts; he saved Rome from the French and added strength/made alliances to
neighbouring Papal States . His capital became
a centre of European diplomacy and he brought a new liveliness to Rome
Rodrigo was a young Spaniard who was
destined to have a life in the church.[3]
Early on he studied canon law at the University
of Bologna
Over the years Rodrigo’s scandalous
life included that of mistresses, most notably Giulia Farnese. This was a claim
that was no doubt true and it was the first of many scandals that plagued
Rodrigo’s life and reputation. He was seen as a character full of ‘sexual
appetite’.[7]
Marion Johnson mentions that
Rodrigo progressed from paternal
affection to a lover’s passion. Giulia, most scandalously for one so young,
became his mistress and the love of his late years.[8]
Tuchman
acknowledges what effect this had on Rodrigo and Mallett also acknowledges
this.[9]
Throughout his time as Vice-Chancellor, Rodrigo garnered a reputation
and an accumulation of wealth and eventually developed an ambition for the
position of Pope.
In July 1492 Innocent VIII died. At
this time Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia was very much in the public eye and had
attracted some interest in Rome
The Cardinals went into the Vatican
This
set the scene for one of the most dramatic and one of the most controversial of
all Papal elections.[12]
In this election Rodrigo was up
against two top contenders, Cardinals della Rovere and Ascanio Sforza. Guiliano
della Rovere had been Rodrigo’s bitter rival for quite some time and was a
pro-French candidate.
The whole process lasted four days
with four scrutinies. During this time Ascanio realized his chances were
becoming slim and he switched his vote to Rodrigo.[13]
This gave Rodrigo the required two thirds majority vote. On the morning of the 11th of
August, 1492, Rodrigo Borgia was announced as the new Pope and later became
known as Alexander VI.
This is one of the
main controversies in Rodrigo’s career. Many accused him of simply buying the cardinals
votes with offers of both wealth and positions in various Church offices.
Barbara Tuchman, who
wrote The March of Folly, argues that the
election was corrupt.
He simply bought the Papacy outright over his two chief rivals, Cardinal
della Rovere and Ascanio Sforza. The latter, who preferred coin to promises,
was brought round by four mule-loads of bullion that were dispatched from
Rodrigo’s palace.[14]
This is also depicted
in the television series The Borgia’s.[15] Tuchman’s account/quote
concerning mule loads shows exaggeration and an attempt for stylising story.
However, there was no
solid conclusive evidence to suggest this and so the allegation is considered inconclusive. By
contrast Michael Mallett writes that Rodrigo led the votes from the beginning
and had no need to buy out his rivals
… the full details of the first three scrutinies of this conclave had
finally been found and published. The implications of these scrutiny lists have
been very fully discussed by several historians but have never been fully
assimilated into the stream of popular Borgia historiography. These lists
reveal that Rodrigo Borgia was one of the leading candidate’s from the first
scrutiny onwards.[16] (referring to the election)
Mallett also strongly
discredits the allegation of simony, due to the lack of appropriate evidence.
He makes reference to opposing Cardinals and how these Cardinals had no need
for Rodrigo’s offers as they were wealthy figures at the time and that there
was no evidence to sustain this claim, their vote was purely their choice,
according to Mallett.[17]
Tuchman and Mallett
have complete opposing views to what actually occurred. Mallett’s answer is
more reliable due to the evidence and researched points he presents, while Tuchman’s
evident use of exaggeration and adding appeal to her work proves less useful in
actual representation of what occurred.
For the first few months in office
he focused on a more strict administration of orderly government and the
problems current throughout Rome Valencia
Rodrigo at this time sought further
allies. He had his daughter, Lucrezia, marry Giovanni Sforza. This would
strengthen ties and give Rodrigo political advantages, but would also prove to
be controversial later.
During this time the French devised plans for an invasion to conquer Naples Papal States was declared and led by
Charles VIII. Charles aimed to claim the throne of Naples Rome
Alexander held firm against demands and ultimately Charles and his army left to continue on toNaples Rome Rome
Alexander held firm against demands and ultimately Charles and his army left to continue on to
This was a diplomatic triumph for Alexander VI. A month earlier he had
been under siege, his city in an uproar, his hold on power tenuous at best; now
he had fully re-established his authority. The terms of the agreement were formally
read out and written up.[21]
With this threat King
Alfonso II fled from Naples to Sicily Naples
Charles however, was unable to
obtain Neapolitan support and so the French returned to Rome
Alexander, in the following months
worked on Italian unity and power base to prevent another danger like this from
arising.[23] [24]
A campaign was then established
against the Orsini, after they sided with the French earlier and betrayed
Alexander. Juan commanded the papal army who claimed a number of Orsini
castles, but the Orsini clan held out and a deal was eventually made between
the two sides.[25] The
Orsini would always maintain a rivalry with the Borgia’s over the years to
come.
On the 14th of June Juan, Duke of Gandia, was found stabbed to death in the Tiber . Alexander was pained by grief. There were a long
list of suspects including the Orsini, Giovanni Sforza, the Duke of Urbino and
even Cesare was eventually listed.
While it may be
questioned why Cesare was a suspect, Hibbert identifies potential motives
Juan’s
failure at Bracciano and his seduction of Sancia, Cesare’s mistress, had
infuriated Cesare, fuelling his dislike of Juan as the obvious favourite (of
Rodrigo’s sons), though unworthy and conceited second son.[26]
The killer was never identified. According
to Tuchman Cesare has since been absolved of the murder, but debate on the
topic still lingers.[27]
This is a perfect example of the deceit and
suspicion that followed the Borgia’s. Its shows suspicion both on the eyes of
the observers and the eyes of each Borgia on one another.
It was in this year
that Alexander annulled the marriage of his daughter to Giovanni Sforza in
order for her to marry Alfonso the Neapolitan heir (He had interest in creating
ties with Naples Milan
There were claims made
against Sforza of impotency after the decision to annul the marriage. Giovanni,
outraged, denied the charge of 'non-consummation' and accused the Pope of
Incest.[29] He made allegations that
the family (Rodrigo, Cesare, Juan) had intimate relations with Lucrezia.
Sforza’s claim of incest is also considered to be one of the most provocative
of the list of accusations that accumulated against the Borgia’s over time.[30]
Christopher Hibbert
acknowledges how these claims seemed to spread and stick within society from an
angered and mistreated Sforza
The rumours of incest, a sin as offensive then as it is now, spread like
wildfire through Rome and all of Italy
These claims were
considered to be simply fabricated by Sforza who wanted to get back at the
Borgia’s for the humiliation he received. They were dismissed as there was no
evidence to hint at this, but these rumours carried on and spread as many of
the Borgia enemies continued adding to this negative view of them.
The
accusations on both sides seem to have been rooted in a particularly nasty
divorce rather than in reality but the incest charges were picked up by the
Borgia’s’ enemies and made to stick.[32]
It’s easily safe to say these incest
claims are fabricated as there’s no possible evidence, it’s a story made to
stain Rodrigo’s reputation.
Another character of interest at
this time was Girolamo Savonarola, a Dominican Friar who preached in Florence
He was executed on
Alexander’s orders, after his public speeches became too much. This is an example of the accusations made
against the Borgia’s of murder/poison to suppress their enemies. It’s generally
believed this did occur whenever a threat arose.
Micheletto Corella was
a Borgia bodyguard who had a close friendship with Cesare.[33] It’s generally believed
Cesare hired him to assassinate certain opposition and it’s also believed that
Cesare/Juan also played a part in certain murders
Tuchman believes in this and
describes Alexander’s Papacy as one of.
Continuous
violence, murders in churches, bodies in the Tiber ,
fighting of factions, burnings and lootings, arrests, tortures and executions,
combined with scandal, frivolities and continuous ceremony.[35]
Even
though Tuchman can be biased at times she states that she bases this claim on
the tone of Burchard’s diary. Johannes Burchard (1450-1506) was an Italian Renaissance chronicler, who
lived during Rodrigo’s time and recorded different events, to provide further
evidence. Burchard’s accounts were utilised by many historians including
Hibbert as he is seen as a reliable chronicler who experienced these events in
person, recorded them and wrote them with an objective tone. It is in this way
that Burchard is useful for both an historians work and as a
significant/primary source for Italian Renaissance affairs and more importantly
Borgia historiography.[36]
In 1499, King Louis XII sought an
early alliance with Alexander. Louis needed help to revive French claim to Naples Naples , the Sforza’s and even Spain
Alexander continued to
help fund Cesare as the French campaign continued. His expenses emptied the
treasury as enemies rose.
The Orsini were
fighting Cesare and the Spanish were fighting the French for Naples
In August 1503
Alexander became gravely ill and eventually died aged seventy three. The reason for his death was originally thought
to be poison (as he had many enemies and poison was
known as an art much practised all over Italy and often used), but was
in fact natural causes.[38]
[39]
Borgia historiography
is the subject of much debate, mostly concerning the claims, allegations and
events that occurred during that specific period.
The allegations can be
explained by rumours. During the Renaissance many have considered Rome
Allegations made against
the Borgia’s have remained unsubstantiated due to the lack of evidence present.
However, questions further allude to what brought out these rumours and what
influenced these claims. Aside from his power gain and the rumours that went
along with it, Rodrigo’s offspring has been one factor of interest.
Rodrigo’s offspring
may have been the subject of further allegations and views of vindictiveness. A
good example of this was Cesare’s military campaign in which he instilled fear
within the French. This behaviour could easily be the result of Rodrigo’s
influence and cause a more negative image of the family being that his military
position was furthered by Rodrigo himself. It can be said that the various
positions Rodrigo put his offspring in could have attributed to the negativity
His offspring (namely
Cesare and Lucrezia) did concrete this ill view of the family, as Mallett
suggests
If he had no had children and so much affection for them (he) would of left
a better memory of himself.[41]
but the infamy Rodrigo attained in his life
through his choices and deeds (including decisions about his offspring) marked
the Borgia family more extensively.
There have been varied
opinions on Rodrigo, with a negative view being the more popular one throughout
history’s course (e.g. his
character was illustrated as one of corruptedness, lies, cheating etc).
Michael Mallett, in his book The Borgia’s: The rise and fall of the most infamous family in history, writes much to clear Rodrigo’s name, but when
discussing his main intentions for his book he does acknowledge the status and
reputation of Rodrigo within society early on and up until this day:
It
is my intention therefore in this book to present as wide a spectrum as
possible of recent views about the Borgia’s in an attempt not to rehabilitate
them but to explain them. To explain why they were so hated, so feared and so
maligned; to explain what they were doing which so upset the Renaissance
Italians as to bring down the whole weight of contemporary humanistic and later
historical censure upon them.[42]
It is only in much more modern times
where the stance on Rodrigo has been slightly more varied. Many either held a
similar view, or slightly differed due to the new
stance historians are now taking on his character.
Christopher Hibbert’s The Borgia’s and Their Enemies for example, utilises many modern based
sources and content from contemporary writers, but throughout his work he aims
for complete objectivity. Hibbert neither condemns nor praises Rodrigo, instead
he tries to aim for the total truth through what ever official evidence he can
extract from his list of contemporary sources and accounts from that time.
Hibbert writes a narrative and aside from his contemporary sources uses characters
such as Burchard.
While being weighed up
as either completely villainous or justified, it should be said a true
judgement cannot be fully reached. While, there is insufficient evidence to
suggest Rodrigo was completely vindictive he was nowhere near honourable.
During his reign as Pope he did achieve some good for Rome
However, the evidence
of what he and his family have done and have been accused of doing, has almost
negated those few good deeds and their name has become one associated on a
darker note. Even though Rodrigo cannot be measured at one end, his name has
been seemingly imprinted throughout history as one for corruption; it is only
in recent times where Rodrigo has been depicted on a slightly lighter note.
By evaluating Rodrigo
morally through the claims and judgements made against him from his time till
now, it’s to be determined that Rodrigo, by today’s standards, was morally
corrupt and nowhere near fit for the position he attained. However, in the
context of his time, where so many religious leaders were controversial (Leo X,
Innocent VIII) Rodrigo can be considered no different than any other.
Marion Johnson quotes
Time makes no fine distinctions, just and unjust are tumbled in its maw.
Perfect vice is as rare as perfect virtue, and where the names of so few last a
generation it is perhaps better to be remembered for notoriety than to be
consigned to the general oblivion.[44]
Even though his life
has been plagued by claims and accusations, he was still a significant
historical personality, regardless of the reputation he acquired that has been
imprinted throughout history.
[2] M Mallet, The Borgia’s: The rise and
fall of the most infamous family in history, Granada Publishing ,
Great Britain
[3] Ibid, p. 85
[4] Ibid, p. 85
[6] Ibid, p. 14
[7] Ibid, p. 32
[8] Johnson, op. cit., p. 82
[9] Mallett, op. cit., p. 115
[10] B Tuchman, The March of Folly,
Sphere Books, Great Britain
[11] Mallett, op. cit., p. 116
[12] Ibid, p. 120
[13] Ibid, p. 123
[14] Tuchman, op. cit., p. 89
[15] ‘The Poisoned
Chalice’, The Borgia’s, Neil Jordon,
Television Program, W., Australia
[16] Mallett, op. cit., p. 124
[17] Ibid, p. 124-125
[18] Johnson, op. cit., p .92
[19] Mallett, op. cit., p. 131
[20] Ibid, p. 130
[21] Hibbert, op. cit., p. 73
[22] Ibid, p. 81-82
[23] Mallett, op. cit., p. 150-151
[24] Johnson, op. cit., p. 115-116
[25] Ibid, 117-118
[26] Hibbert, op. cit., p. 109
[27] Tuchman, op. cit., p. 102
[28] Ibid, p. 101
[29] Mallett, op. cit., p. 169
[30] S Poole , The Borgia’s Fact or Fiction, Sara Poole, http://www.sarapoole.com/sarapooleborgiasfactorfiction.html,
accessed: 22/07/2012
[31] Hibbert, op. cit., p. 113
[32] Poole , op. cit.
[33] Hibbert, op. cit., p. 162
[34] Unknown, Cesare Borgia,
Wetpaint, http://theborgias.wetpaint.com/page/Cesare+Borgia,
accessed: 23/12/2011
[35] Tuchman, op. cit., p. 108
[36] Mallett, op. cit., p. 13
[37] Tuchman, op. cit., p. 107
[38] Ibid, p. 107
[39] Poole , op. cit.
[40] Tuchman, op. cit., p. 92
[41] Mallett, op. cit., p. 265
[42] Ibid, p. 9
[43] M Walton, The Scandalous
Reputation of Alexander VI, Clio Journal, https://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The+Scandalous+Reputation+of+Pope+Alexander+VI,
accessed: 22/07/2012
[44] Johnson, op. cit., p. 224
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