Source Evaluation - Draft

Extension History – Source Evaluation

Christopher Hibbert - The Borgia’s and Their Enemies: Hibbert’s book focuses on the Borgia reign from 1431-1519 during the Italian Renaissance. His work most notably details the story of the life of Rodrigo Borgia or Alexander VI.
Strengths and Weaknesses: The books main strength relies on Hibbert’s objective view of Alexander’s life. While many historians and writers have either tried to rehabilitate or slander Rodrigo’s name Hibbert’s work instead aims for an objective side where Hibbert doesn’t identify himself on either side. This is expected from an empiricist such as himself.
The strength in this book also comes from the plain truthfulness of the account and how factual based it is, all information conveyed is almost always thoroughly backed by strong and supportive evidence and sources. Hibbert through his bibliography utilises many modern day, contemporary sources, but he also uses the accounts of those who were there during this time, such as Johannes Burchard. Burchard was a chronicler who lived and recorded events during Rodrigo’s time and Hibbert uses Burchard to support what he writes.
Hibbert’s vast array of sources, evidence and overall objective/unbiased tone makes his work very reliable and useful in studying Rodrigo’s life.
While proving to be a strongly knit and thorough piece of work, Hibbert’s main weakness comes from his very own foundation and aim, he provides no opinion/view. With such a thoroughly researched account, Hibbert sticks too close to his roots and doesn’t provide an overall summary of his own actual input on Alexander and the Borgia family themselves.
Hibbert’s work, however, is still well established with thorough research and evidence that overall provides an intricate account/narrative on the Borgia’s, particularly Rodrigo.

Barbara Tuchman – The March of Folly: Tuchman’s work largely focuses on the concept of folly and how history seemingly repeats itself. In her book she provides overviews on many different significant historical characters including Alexander VI.
Strengths and Weaknesses: Tuchman’s main strength is reliant on her own view/opinion on Rodrigo and how she strongly sides against him and the family. Tuchman solely believes in the corrupt image that has plagued Alexander’s life over history’s course. Her work is useful in the sense that it provides a very one sided and intriguing view over the situation/events that occurred.
While utilising similar sources to Hibbert such as Burchard she enjoys placing her own spin on events and has a habit of exaggeration when discussing certain events (e.g. Describing Rodrigo’s use of buying out his opponents during the election).
While having an intriguing and unique view and spin on the Borgia’s this Is also where her work shows signs of weakness.
Tuchman’s use of exaggeration and personal interpretation is used to further her own negative views of Rodrigo and this shows the incompetence and inconsistency of her work. She at times adds exaggeration and sarcasm when she writes to describe different parts of Rodrigo’s life. Her own opinion has seemingly plagued her work and clouded reasonable judgement of him and the family.

Michael Mallett – The Borgia’s ‘The rise and fall of the most infamous family in history’: Michael Mallett establishes his main intention for his book early on and describes how he aims to address the current views of the Borgia’s and why they are seen the way they are. Mallett also provides a narrative where, like Tuchman, he places his own opinions and interpretations into the mix.

Strengths and Weaknesses: Like Tuchman Mallett’s strength relies on his own interpretation of the Borgia’s, but unlike Tuchman his view is one that sides with Rodrigo instead of against him. Mallett’s contrasting view of the Borgia’s is useful in the sense that comparisons can be made between both Mallett and Tuchman.
Mallett also contextualises his work and the Borgia’s by discussing Italian politics, the Italian renaissance, what was occurring during this time and how this specific era/time worked in terms of both society and government.
In some sense Mallett’s account is much more detailed and thoroughly supported by relevant sources more than Tuchman’s. Mallett has also been one of the more useful sources for my essay as his work addresses similar questions that I set myself to analyse and query.
In similarity to Tuchman, Mallett’s main weakness is also evident in the way in which he views Alexander. In some sense throughout the book he presents his one sidedness and defence of the Borgia’s too excessively.
Overall though his work has been a very important source for the work on my essay and has contributed significantly through the way in which he sets himself to answer the questions that I’ve set myself.

Changes and Updates

Currently working on my third draft for my essay. In this draft I'm now focusing on the way in which I can evaluate Rodrigo Borgia/Alexander VI and on what level I'm evaluating/judging. I'm also making a few changes to the structure and cutting down story/narrative.
I'm also working on both the source evaluation and the synopsis, both should have drafts published within the next day or so as well as my next essay draft.

Second Draft

Rodrigo Borgia was both a famous and infamous Italian Renaissance Pope who ruled from 1492 up until his death in 1503. My main purpose is to evaluate the papacy of Rodrigo Borgia. In order to do this it is necessary to analyse the specific sources and from those sources extract content relating to Rodrigo’s life, his rise to the Papacy, actions made during his reign and most significantly, the varying views of his Papacy.

Rodrigo was a young Spaniard who was destined to have a life in the church. Early on he studied canon law at the University of Bologna. His Uncle Calixtus III rose to the Papacy in 1455. In 1456, Rodrigo became a Cardinal at the young age of 25 and in the following year he attained the post of vice-chancellorship of the Holy See from his uncle. Over the years Rodrigo’s scandalous life included that of mistresses most notably Giulia Farnese. This was a claim that was no doubt true and it was the first of many scandals that plagued Rodrigo’s life and reputation. He was seen as a character full of ‘sexual appetite’. Marion Johnson in her book “The Borgia’s”, which focuses on a narrative of Alexander’s life, mentions that
“Rodrigo progressed from paternal affection to a lover’s passion. Giulia, most scandalously for one so young, became his mistress and the love of his late years”
Tuchman acknowledges what effect this had on Rodrigo and Mallett also acknowledges this.
“Made the subject of lewd jokes, it helped tarnish Borgia’s reputation”.
Throughout his time as Vice-Chancellor, Rodrigo garnered a reputation and an accumulation of wealth and eventually developed an admiration for the position of Pope.

In July 1492 Innocent VIII died. At this time Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia was very much in the public eye and had attracted some interest in Rome.

The Cardinals went into the Vatican on the 6^th of August to elect Innocent’s successor. Michael Mallett states
“This set the scene for one of the most dramatic and one of the most controversial of all Papal elections”.
In this election Rodrigo seemed to be against two top contenders, Cardinals della Rovere and Ascanio Sforza. Guiliano della Rovere had been Rodrigo’s bitter rival for quite some time and was a pro-French candidate.
The whole process lasted four days with four scrutinies. During this time Ascanio realized his chances were becoming slim and he switched his vote to Rodrigo. This gave Rodrigo the required two thirds majority vote.  On the morning of the 11^th of August, 1492, Rodrigo Borgia was announced as the new Pope and later became known as Alexander VI.
There were many alleged allegations that occurred even when Alexander himself first became Pope in 1492 and this is one of the main controversial highlights in Rodrigo’s career. Many accused him of simply buying out the Papacy, with bribes and offers of both wealth and positions in various offices/roles throughout the Church.
Barbara Tuchman, who wrote “The March of Folly” works against Rodrigo and sides with the idea that he simply bought out the Papacy
“He simply bought the Papacy outright over his two chief rivals, Cardinal della Rovere and Ascanio Sforza. The latter, who preferred coin to promises, was brought round by four mule-loads of bullion that were dispatched from Rodrigo’s palace.”
This is also depicted in the television series “The Borgia’s”.

However, there was no solid conclusive evidence to suggest this and because of that fact the allegation is considered false by most or at the very least inconclusive. By contrast Michael Mallett writes that Rodrigo was in the lead, voting wise, from the beginning and had no need to buy out his rivals
“… the full details of the first three scrutinies of this conclave had finally been found and published. The implications of these scrutiny lists have been very fully discussed by several historians but have never been fully assimilated into the stream of popular Borgia historiography. These lists reveal that Rodrigo Borgia was one of the leading candidate’s from the first scrutiny onwards” (referring to the election)
Mallett also strongly discredits the allegation of Simony, due to the lack of appropriate evidence. He makes reference to opposing Cardinals and how these Cardinals had no need for Rodrigo’s offers as there were wealthy figures at the time and that there was no evidence to sustain this claim, their vote was purely their choice, according to Mallett.
Tuchman and Mallett have complete opposing views to what actually occurred. Whatever the answer is cannot be officially determined, what is known is Rodrigo made his way there and became Pope.

 Residents warmed to Alexander’s new position as he had already lived a long life in Rome. At first, he focused on a more strict administration of justice, orderly government and he focused on his position and the problems current throughout Rome. However, there was an inevitable pull from his family and eventually his relatives were soon established in different positions throughout the Italian aristocracy and the church. Cesare, Rodrigo’s eldest son, became a Cardinal and Archbishop of Valencia; Giovanni (Juan) received the Spanish Dukedom of Gandia.

 Rodrigo at this time sought further allies. He had his daughter, Lucrezia, marry Giovanni Sforza and  his youngest son Jofre, marry the granddaughter of Naples. This would strengthen ties and give Rodrigo political advantages, but would also prove to be controversial later.

During this time the French devised plans for invasion to conquer Naples. A march through the Papal States was declared and to be led by Charles VIII. Charles aimed to claim the throne of Naples and the French planned to use Naples as a base for a potential crusade against the Turks. Charles moved on unresisted and reached Rome.
Alexander held firm against demands and ultimately Charles and his army left to continue on to Naples without meeting any combat. Rome was free of the French, for now.

With this threat King Alfonso II fled from Naples to Sicily. The French took Naples and their journey had met little combat.

Charles however, was unable to obtain Neapolitan support and so the French army turned its direction back to Rome. Alexander had no choice but to escape northwards with most of the Cardinals. Pursuit became futile and Charles, once again, passed onwards back home.

Alexander, in the following months worked on Italian unity to prevent another danger like this from arising and worked on an Italian power base.
A campaign was then established against the Orsini, after Virginio Orsini betrayed Alexander by siding with the French, with the hopes of benefits. Alexander made Juan, Duke of Gandia command the army. The papal army claimed a number of Orsini castles, but the Orsini clan held out and soon defeated the army. A deal was made between the two sides for the return of their castles.

On the 14^th of June another tragedy occurred with Juan, Duke of Gandia found stabbed to death in the Tiber. Upon hearing this Alexander locked himself in his room with grief and wept. Juan was noted as having a long line of enemies, owing to papal property given to him by the Pope. There were a long list of potential suspects including the Orsini, Giovanni Sforza, the Duke of Urbino and even Cesare eventually became listed as a suspect.
While it may be questioned why Cesare was a suspect, Hibbert identifies potential motives
“Juan’s failure at Bracciano and his seduction of Sancia, Cesare’s mistress, had infuriated Cesare, fuelling his dislike of Juan as the obvious favourite (of Rodrigo’s sons), though unworthy and conceited second son”.
No one ended up being identified as the killer. Cesare has since been absolved of the murder, but debate still lingers. This is another example of the deceit and suspicion that followed the Borgia’s.

 It was in this year that Alexander annulled the marriage of his daughter to Giovanni Sforza in order for her to marry Alfonso the Neapolitan heir (He had interest in creating ties with the royal family of Naples). Sforza had been married to Lucrezia, to strengthen ties with Milan.  

There were claims made against Sforza that he was impotent after the decision to annul the marriage. Giovanni, outraged, denied the charge of 'non-consummation' and accused the Pope of Incest. He made allegations that the family (Rodrigo, Cesare, Juan) had intimate relations with Lucrezia. This is another example of claims and allegations made against Rodrigo. Sforza’ claim of incest is also considered to be one of the most provocative of the list of accusations that accumulated against the Borgia’s over time.
Christopher Hibbert acknowledges how these claims seemed to spread and stick within society from an angered and mistreated Sforza
“The rumours of incest, a sin as offensive then as it is now, spread like wildfire through Rome and all of Italy. Born out of Giovanni’s desire for revenge on the family who were taunting him so unfairly, the story stuck”
These claims were considered to be simply fabricated by Sforza who wanted to get back at the Borgia’s for the humiliation he received. They were dismissed as there was no evidence to hint at this, but these rumours carried on and spread as many of the Borgia enemies continued adding to this negative view of them.
"The accusations on both sides seem to have been rooted in a particularly nasty divorce rather than in reality but the incest charges were picked up by the Borgia’s’ enemies and made to stick"

 Another character of interest at this time was Girolamo Savonarola, a Dominican Friar who preached in Florence. Savonarola had great influence (even politically concerning pro-French Policy) to those who listened. For this reason and well as personal attacks on Alexander, Savonarola was eventually imprisoned and later executed.  

Savonarola, the Dominican Friar, was executed on Alexander’s orders, after his public speeches attacking the Borgia’s became too much.  The Borgia’s were accused on numerous occasions (this being an example) of murder/poison to suppress their enemies. It’s generally believed this did occur whenever a threat arose. Micheletto Corella was a Borgia bodyguard that was reportedly requested by Cesare to assassinate certain enemies and it’s believed that Cesare/Juan also played a part in certain murders. So the answers to murder more than likely point toward yes, but to what extent and how many were suppressed by them cannot be answered.
It’s often reported they preferred more unsubtle methods. The use of murder by both Cesare and Juan is depicted throughout the television series and Tuchman describes Alexander’s Papacy as one full of “Continuous violence, murders in churches, bodies in the Tiber, fighting of factions, burnings and lootings, arrests, tortures and executions, combined with scandal, frivolities and continuous ceremony”.
Even though Tuchman can be biased at times she states that she bases this claim on the tone of Burchard’s diary. Burchard was a renaissance chronicler who many Borgia historians used, including Hibbert.

In 1499, King Louis XII sought an early alliance with the Borgia Pope. Louis needed help to revive French claim to Naples (which Charles had failed to do) and for his marriage to be annulled. Against public opinion, Alexander saw this as an opportunity and as a window of advancement for Cesare, who had recently resigned his role as Cardinal. Alexander granted Louis' annulment and Cesare became the Duke of Valence and the King even gave him command of a large body of French lancers. This deal turned into an alliance with France in early 1499, an alliance that angered many including the rulers of Naples, the Sforza’s and even Spain. The Pope was creating enemies by progressing with this alliance.

 In the middle of 1499, Louis gathered troops for his Italian military campaign, to reclaim Milan and Naples. 1500 became Jubilee year; Cesare had a full military career, aiming to regain control of certain Papal States.

Alexander continued to help fund Cesare for his journey. His expenses emptied the treasury. Cesare and the French continued their campaign as enemies rose, while Alexander monitored the situation carefully.
The Orsini were fighting Cesare and the Spanish were fighting the French for Naples. The Pope was caught in the middle, ready to ally himself with whichever power promised the most at any period.
In August 1503 Alexander became gravely ill and eventually died aged seventy three. The reason for his death was originally thought to be poison (as he had many enemies and poison was also known as an art much practised all over Italy and often used), but was in fact natural causes.

Rodrigo Borgia led an intriguing life as Pope Alexander VI. There was a vast range of views and opinions concerning his status both from the time of the Italian Renaissance and throughout history up until modern times from an array of historians and people alike. Borgia historiography is the subject of much debate, mostly concerning the claims, allegations and events that occurred during that specific period.  

The allegations can be explained by rumours. During the Renaissance many have considered Rome as a centre for gossip. Most will acknowledge this, as Barbara Tuchman famously quotes:
“In the bubbling stew of Rome's rumors”

There have been many allegations/claims all made against the Borgia’s. Most of these however have remained unsubstantiated or unknown due to the lack of evidence present or the fact that the evidence proves the action didn’t occur at all. However, the question further alludes to what brought out these rumours and what influenced these claims. Aside from his power gain and the rumours that went along with it, his offspring has been one factor of interest.

Rodrigo’s offspring may have been the subject of further allegations and views of vindictiveness. A good example of this was Cesare’s military campaign in which he instilled fear within the French. This behaviour could easily be the result of Rodrigo’s influence and cause a more negative image of the family being that his military position was furthered by Rodrigo himself. It can be said that the various positions Rodrigo put his offspring in could have attributed to the negativity. Overall Rodrigo’s actions and decisions he made somewhat furthered this concept. His offspring (namely Cesare and Lucrezia) did concrete this ill view of the family, but the infamy Rodrigo attained in his life through his choices and deeds (including decisions about his offspring) marked the Borgia family more extensively. 

 There have been varied opinions on Rodrigo, with a negative view being the more popular one throughout history’s course (e.g. his character was illustrated as one of corruptedness, lies, cheating etc).

Michael Mallett, in his book “The Borgia’s :The rise and fall of the most infamous family in history”, writes much to clear Rodrigo’s name, but when discussing his main intentions for his book he does acknowledge the status and reputation of Rodrigo within society early on and up until this day:
“It is my intention therefore in this book to present as wide a spectrum as possible of recent views about the Borgia’s in an attempt not to rehabilitate them but to explain them. To explain why they were so hated, so feared and so maligned; to explain what they were doing which so upset the Renaissance Italians as to bring down the whole weight of contemporary humanistic and later historical censure upon them”.

It is only in much more modern times where the stance on Rodrigo has been slightly more varied. Many either held a similar view, (such as Tuchman who withheld the negative view,) or slightly differed due to the new stance historians are now taking on his character.
Christopher Hibbert’s “The Borgias and Their Enemies” for example, utilises many modern based sources and content from contemporary writers, but throughout his work he aims for complete objectivity. Hibbert neither condemns nor praises Rodrigo, instead he tries to aim for the total truth through what ever official evidence he can extract from his list of contemporary sources and accounts from that time. Hibbert writes a narrative and aside from his contemporary sources uses characters such as Johannes Burchard (1450-1506), an Italian Renaissance chronicler, who lived during Rodrigo’s time and recorded different events, to provide further evidence
The question of, was he really the most controversial, is difficult to determine. He definitely was one of the most controversial Renaissance Popes; however, he was not the only one that attracted immense controversy and harsh allegations. There were many other religious figures who attracted similar attention, possibly even more controversy including Stephen VI, John XII, Innocent VIII, Leo X to name a few. It’s often been stated that:
“Alexander VI may have been no worse then any other religious man at the time”.
Even though he was one of the most controversial, it’s difficult to state whether he was the most controversial as there have many religious figures who have been accused in a similar fashion.

While being weighed up as either completely villainous or justified, it should be said a true judgement cannot be fully reached. While, there is insufficient evidence to suggest Rodrigo was completely vindictive he was nowhere near honourable. During his reign as Pope he did achieve some good for Rome and the general society (Patronage of the arts, saved Rome from the French, added strength/made alliances to neighbouring Papal States, brought a new liveliness to Rome).

Marion Johnson in her book “The Borgia’s” forms more of a narrative on Alexander’s life and agrees with his achievements through the course of his Papacy
“But Alexander also did good work knowingly for the papacy and for Rome, since he was fully conscious of his duties as a Renaissance patron”.

However, the evidence of what he and his family have done and what they were accused of doing, has almost negated those few good deeds and their name has become one associated on a darker note. Even though Rodrigo cannot be measured at one end, his name has been seemingly imprinted throughout history as one for corruption; it is only in recent times where Rodrigo has been depicted on a slightly lighter note.

Working on Second Draft

As the title suggests I'm now working on a second draft that should be up soon (Sometime this weekend hopefully).  I'm also working on my synopsis that will also be up around the same time. While working on my next draft I'll be reorganising the structure of my response and incorporating both the background information/narrative with the claims made against Rodrigo.

Essay Part 2

(This will continue after the first part), (This section still requires abit further depth/input from the sources I've used), (The last part will tie Rodrigo and history together, it will focus on the sources I've used and tie Rodrigo Borgia and historiography).

Rodrigo Borgia led an intriguing life as Pope Alexander VI. There was a vast range of views and opinions concerning his status both from the time of the Italian Renaissance and throughout history up until modern from an array of historians and people alike.

During the Renaissance many have considered Rome as a centre for rumours and gossip. Most will acknowledge this, as Barbara Tuchman famously quotes:

 “In the bubbling stew of Rome's rumors”

 In fact the alleged allegations occurred even when Alexander himself first became Pope in 1492. As stated earlier many accused him of simply buying out the Papacy, with bribes and offers of both wealth and positions in various offices/roles throughout the Church.  However, there was no solid conclusive evidence to suggest this and because of that fact, the allegation is now considered false by most. In fact Mallett writes that Rodrigo was in the lead, voting wise, from the beginning:

 “ … the full details of the first three scrutinies of this conclave had finally been found and published. The implications of these scrutiny lists have been very fully discussed by several historians but have never been fully assimilated into the stream of popular Borgia historiography. These lists reveal that Rodrigo Borgia was one of the leading candidate’s from the first scrutiny onwards” (referring to the election)

He also discredits the allegation of Simony:

 "Finally it seems poor evidence of simony to claim that the votes of such wealthy figures…”,

  “ … simony played no part in their choice” (in reference to various cardinals)

 Another solid example of claims and allegations made against Rodrigo was the allegation of incest, famously claimed by an angered Giovanni Sforza. Sforza had been married to Lucrezia, the Pope’s daughter, as mentioned Rodrigo decided on this to gain political advantages/allies and to strengthen ties with Milan.

There were claims made against Sforza that he was impotent after there was a decision to annul the marriage a few years later. In return, Sforza made allegations that the rest of the family (Rodrigo, Cesare, Juan) had intimate relations with her. These claims were soon dismissed as again there was no evidence to hint at this, but they carried on as many of the Borgia enemies in the future would continue using these incestuous claims against them. In fact, many of the Borgia enemies reportedly created claims or spread them to add to this negative view of the Borgia’s.

Other accusations that the Borgia’s were accused of included murder/poison to suppress their enemies. It’s generally believed this did occur whenever a threat arose. Micheletto Corella was a Borgia bodyguard that was reportedly requested by Cesare to assassinate certain targets/enemies and it’s believed that Cesare/Juan also had a part in certain murders. So the answers to murder more than likely point toward yes, but to what extent cannot be answered. Another example of murder used to suppress enemies is the case of Savonarola, the Dominican Friar, who was executed on Alexander’s orders, after his public speeches attacking the Borgia’s became too much. 

The other allegation was Rodrigo’s mistresses and this was true (Giulia Farnese), but to how many mistresses he had cannot be confirmed.

There have been several allegations/claims all made against the Borgia’s. Most of these however have remained unsubstantiated or unknown due to the lack of evidence present or the fact that the evidence proves the action didn’t occur at all. However, the question further alludes to what brought out these rumours and what influenced these claims. Aside from his power gain and the rumours that went along with it, his offspring has been one factor of interest.

It can be said that Rodrigo’s offspring could have attained further allegations and views of vindictiveness. The best example of this was Cesare’s military campaign in which he instilled fear with the French around 1500; this fear could be an easy connection to Rodrigo and cause a more negative image of himself and the family, however his military position was furthered by Rodrigo himself. So it can be answered that the various positions and influence Rodrigo put his offspring through could have attributed to these further allegations and negativity. Overall Rodrigo’s actions and decisions he made  somewhat furthered this concept. His offspring (namely Cesare and Lucrezia) did spread this ill view of the family and claims were created around them, but the infamy Rodrigo attained in his life through his choices and deeds (including decisions about his offspring) marked the Borgia family more extensively. 

There have been a range of views and thoughts on Rodrigo, with this negative view being the seemingly more popularized one throughout history’s course. It is only in much more modern times where the stance on Rodrigo has been slightly more varied. Many either stayed quite similar in view or slightly differed due to the new stance historians are now taking on his character. Christopher Hibbert, for example, utilises many modern based sources, but throughout his work he aims for complete objectivity. Hibbert neither condemns nor praises Rodrigo, instead he tries to aim for the total truth through what ever official evidence he can extract from his list of contemporary sources and accounts from that time.

The question of, was he really the most controversial is difficult to say. He defiantly was one of the most controversial Renaissance Popes; however, he was not the only one that attracted immense controversy and harsh allegations. There were many other religious figures who attracted similar attention, possibly even more controversy including Stephen VI, John XII, Innocent VIII, Leo X to name a few. Even though he was one of the most controversial it’s difficult to state whether he was the most controversial as there have many religious figures who have been accused in a similar fashion.

While being weighed up as either completely villainous or justified, it should be said a true judgement cannot be fully reached. While, there is insufficient evidence to suggest Rodrigo was completely vindictive he was nowhere near honourable. During his reign as Pope he did achieve some good for Rome and the general society (Patronage of the arts, saved Rome from the French, added strength/made alliances to neighbouring Papal States, brought a new liveliness to Rome). However, the evidence of what he and his family has done and what they were accused of doing has almost negated those few good deeds and their name has become one associated on a darker note. Even though Rodrigo cannot be measured at one end, his name has been seemingly imprinted throughout history as one for corruption; it is only in recent times where Rodrigo has been illustrated on a slightly lighter note

A Few More Websites

While my essay writing continues, I have recently came across two interesting websites concerning allegations and the reputation of Rodrigo. These are the websites:

• http://www.sarapoole.com/sarapooleborgiasfactorfiction.html
• http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/The+Scandalous+Reputation+of+Pope+Alexander+VI

Project writing is still progressing well, I shall be putting up the next part of my essay (first part is already up) up on Blogger as soon as possible. The next part reflects on views, allegations and what contributed to these thoughts.

Essay Foundation - Alexander's Papacy/Life

Below is a part of what I've written up concerning project writing. What I've done is written about Rodrigo's life/Papacy as a foundation/base (Due to the fact that my question requires me to do so) and from there I'll be adding input from myself and my sources, such as quotes, opinions, motvies, aims, views and further evaluation. I'll continue adding layers of depth and focus on different areas as I continue writing over the next few weeks.

Rodrigo Borgia was both a famous and infamous Italian Renaissance Pope who ruled from 1492 up until his death in 1503. My main purpose is to evaluate the papacy of Rodrigo Borgia. In order to do this it is necessary to analyse the specific sources and from those sources extract content relating to Rodrigo’s life, his rise to the Papacy, actions made during his reign, views and most significant of all whether he was as vindictive as many claim or he was a good and justified Pope.

Rodrigo was a young Spaniard who was destined from the start to have a life in the church. Rodrigo early on was sent to study canon law at the University of Bologna. He had a large extended family and he knew of many who had or were destined to have roles throughout the Catholic Church, most notably his Uncle Calixtus III, who rose to the Papacy on the 8th of April 1455. In 1456, Rodrigo became a Cardinal at the young age of 25 and in the following year Calixtus III appointed his nephew to the post of vice-chancellorship of the Holy See. Throughout his time as Vice-Chancellor and Cardinal Rodrigo garnered a reputation and an accumulation of wealth, but through all these privileges that came with his position he had developed an admiration for the position of Pope, however attaining this position was no simple task.

Over the years Rodrigo served under five Popes and during this time he was having a growing influence, but he was growing in age also. He had Spanish support and he kept on good terms with both Naples and the Sforzas of Milan.

In July 1492 Pope Innocent VIII died on the 25^th, Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia knew this might be his one last possible chance. He was very much in the public eye by 1492 and had attracted some interest and popularity in Rome.

The Cardinals went into the Vatican on the 6^th of August to elect Innocent’s successor. Rodrigo seemed to be against two top contenders, Cardinals della Rovere and Ascanio Sforza. Guiliano della Rovere had been Rodrigo’s bitter rival for quite some time, della Rovere was also a pro-French candidate.

The whole process lasted four days with four scrutinies. During this time Ascanio realized his chances were becoming slim and he switched his vote to Rodrigo. This gave Rodrigo the required 2/3 majority vote.  There were many rumours stating Rodrigo simply bought out (including promises of positions in his offices and benefices) the Papacy with the cardinal’s votes.

On the morning of the 11^th of August, 1492, Rodrigo Borgia was announced as the new Pope and he appeared at a window with Pope Robes. He later became known as Pope Alexander VI.

Residents eventually warmed to Alexander’s new position as he had already lived a long life in Rome. At first, Rodrigo focused on a more strict administration of justice, orderly government and he focused on his position and the problems current throughout Rome. However, there was an inevitable pull from his family and eventually his relatives were soon established in different positions throughout the Italian aristocracy and the church. Cesare, Rodrigo’s eldest son, became a Cardinal and Archbishop of Valencia, Giovanni (Juan) received the Spanish Dukedom of Gandia.

Rodrigo at this time seeked further allies, he had his daughter, Lucrezia, marry Giovanni Sforza and Jofre, his youngest son, marry the granddaughter of Naples. This would strengthen ties and give Rodrigo political advantages.

During the time the French devised plans for invasion to conquer Naples. A march through the Papal States was soon declared and to be led by Charles VIII. Charles aimed to claim the throne of Naples and the French planned to use Naples as a base for a potential crusade against the Turks. Charles moved on unresisted and eventually the French reached Rome.
Negotiations between the two sides were made. Alexander held firm against demands and ultimately Charles and his army soon left to continue on to Naples without meeting any combat. Rome was free of the French, for now.

King Alfonso II fled from Naples to Sicily and the path for the French was clear to Naples. The French took Naples and their journey had met little to no combat.

Charles however, was unable to obtain Papal investiture or Neapolitan support and so the French army turned its direction back to Rome. Alexander had no choice but to escape northwards with most of the Cardinals, eventually pursuit of the Pope became futile and Charles, once again, passed onwards.

Alexander, in the following months worked on Italian unity to prevent another danger like this from arising again and worked on Italian power base.

A campaign was then established against the Orsini, after Virginio Orsini betrayed Alexander by siding with the French, with the hopes of benefits. Virginio was soon captured by the Spanish. Alexander made Juan, Duke of Gandia command the army. The papal army captured a few Orsini castles, but the Orsini clan held out and soon defeated the army. After this a deal as made and the Orsini spent 50,000 in exchange for some of their captured lands.

On the 14^th of June another tragedy set in for the Borgia’s with Juan, Duke of Gandia found stabbed to death in the Tiber. Upon hearing this Alexander locked himself in his room with grief and wept. Juan was noted as having a long line of enemies, owing to papal property given to him by the Pope. No one was identified as the killer, but some suspected Cesare (he had since been absolved of the murder).

It was in this year that Alexander annulled the marriage of his daughter to Giovanni Sforza in order for her to marry Alfonso, Neapolitan heir (He had interest in conceiving ties with the royal family of Naples). Giovanni, outraged, denying the charge of 'non-consummation', accused the Pope of Incest.

Another character of interest at this time was Girolamo Savonarola, a Dominican Friar who preached in Florence. Savonarola had great influence (even politically concerning pro-French Policy) to those who listened. For this reason and well as personal attacks on Alexander, Savonarola eventually became imprisoned and later executed.

In 1499, Louis XII after settling in the French throne required an early alliance with the Borgia Pope. Louis needed help to claim the duchy of Milan, revive French claim to Naples (which Charles had failed to do) and for his marriage to be annulled. Against public opinion, Alexander saw this as a way towards gold, riches, valuables, opportunity and as a window of advancement for Cesare, who had recently resigned his role as Cardinal. Alexander granted Louis' annulment and Cesare was soon able to marry. He became Duchy of Valence and the King even gave him command of a large body of French lancers. This deal turned into an alliance with France in early 1499, an alliance that angered many including the rulers of Naples, the Sforzas and even Spain. The Pope was creating enemies by progressing with this alliance. Spouses linked to the Borgias and Naples began to live uneasy due to this.

In the middle of 1499, Louis gathered troops for his Italian military campaign, to reclaim Milan and Naples. 1500 became Jubilee year; Cesare had a full military career, instilling fear with France and aiming to regain control of certain Papal States. The cost of his campaigns drained Papal revenues. Alexander continued to help fund Cesare for his journey and his expenses, in late 1500 he created twelve new cardinals to add to these funds. At this time Alexander's mind only seemed focused on his offspring, especially Cesare.
Alexander's expenses emptied the treasury. In mid 1501 Alexander ordered Cesare back to Rome to help partition Naples, he later blessed the French army as they went out to seize Naples. Cesare and the French continued their campaign as enemies rose, while Alexander monitored carefully. In the last years of his life, Alexander had many hostilities. The Orsini were fighting Cesare and the Spanish were fighting the French for Naples. The Pope was intrigued and caught in the middle, ready to ally himself with whichever power promised the most at any period.

Churchmen who were concerned for the faith raised the issue of a council.
In August 1503 Alexander came down heavily ill and eventually died age 73. His death was originally thought to be poison, but was in fact natural causes.

Rodrigo Borgia led an intriguing life as Pope Alexander VI. (Essay still being worked on from here).